.. _2to3-reference:
2to3 --- Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
=================================================
.. sectionauthor:: Benjamin Peterson <benjamin@python.org>
2to3 is a Python program that reads Python 2.x source code and applies a series
of *fixers* to transform it into valid Python 3.x code. The standard library
contains a rich set of fixers that will handle almost all code. 2to3 supporting
library :mod:`lib2to3` is, however, a flexible and generic library, so it is
possible to write your own fixers for 2to3.
.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
The ``lib2to3`` module was marked pending for deprecation in Python 3.9
(raising :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` on import) and fully deprecated
in Python 3.11 (raising :exc:`DeprecationWarning`). The ``2to3`` tool is
part of that. It will be removed in Python 3.13.
.. _2to3-using:
Using 2to3
----------
2to3 will usually be installed with the Python interpreter as a script. It is
also located in the :file:`Tools/scripts` directory of the Python root.
2to3's basic arguments are a list of files or directories to transform. The
directories are recursively traversed for Python sources.
Here is a sample Python 2.x source file, :file:`example.py`::
def greet(name):
print "Hello, {0}!".format(name)
print "What's your name?"
name = raw_input()
greet(name)
It can be converted to Python 3.x code via 2to3 on the command line:
.. code-block:: shell-session
$ 2to3 example.py
A diff against the original source file is printed. 2to3 can also write the
needed modifications right back to the source file. (A backup of the original
file is made unless :option:`!-n` is also given.) Writing the changes back is
enabled with the :option:`!-w` flag:
.. code-block:: shell-session
$ 2to3 -w example.py
After transformation, :file:`example.py` looks like this::
def greet(name):
print("Hello, {0}!".format(name))
print("What's your name?")
name = input()
greet(name)
Comments and exact indentation are preserved throughout the translation process.
By default, 2to3 runs a set of :ref:`predefined fixers <2to3-fixers>`. The
:option:`!-l` flag lists all available fixers. An explicit set of fixers to run
can be given with :option:`!-f`. Likewise the :option:`!-x` explicitly disables a
fixer. The following example runs only the ``imports`` and ``has_key`` fixers:
.. code-block:: shell-session
$ 2to3 -f imports -f has_key example.py
This command runs every fixer except the ``apply`` fixer:
.. code-block:: shell-session
$ 2to3 -x apply example.py
Some fixers are *explicit*, meaning they aren't run by default and must be
listed on the command line to be run. Here, in addition to the default fixers,
the ``idioms`` fixer is run:
.. code-block:: shell-session
$ 2to3 -f all -f idioms example.py
Notice how passing ``all`` enables all default fixers.
Sometimes 2to3 will find a place in your source code that needs to be changed,
but 2to3 cannot fix automatically. In this case, 2to3 will print a warning
beneath the diff for a file. You should address the warning in order to have
compliant 3.x code.
2to3 can also refactor doctests. To enable this mode, use the :option:`!-d`
flag. Note that *only* doctests will be refactored. This also doesn't require
the module to be valid Python. For example, doctest like examples in a reST
document could also be refactored with this option.
The :option:`!-v` option enables output of more information on the translation
process.
Since some print statements can be parsed as function calls or statements, 2to3
cannot always read files containing the print function. When 2to3 detects the
presence of the ``from __future__ import print_function`` compiler directive, it
modifies its internal grammar to interpret :func:`print` as a function. This
change can also be enabled manually with the :option:`!-p` flag. Use
:option:`!-p` to run fixers on code that already has had its print statements
converted. Also :option:`!-e` can be used to make :func:`exec` a function.
The :option:`!-o` or :option:`!--output-dir` option allows specification of an
alternate directory for processed output files to be written to. The
:option:`!-n` flag is required when using this as backup files do not make sense
when not overwriting the input files.
.. versionadded:: 3.2.3
The :option:`!-o` option was added.
The :option:`!-W` or :option:`!--write-unchanged-files` flag tells 2to3 to always
write output files even if no changes were required to the file. This is most
useful with :option:`!-o` so that an entire Python source tree is copied with
translation from one directory to another.
This option implies the :option:`!-w` flag as it would not make sense otherwise.
.. versionadded:: 3.2.3
The :option:`!-W` flag was added.
The :option:`!--add-suffix` option specifies a string to append to all output
filenames. The :option:`!-n` flag is required when specifying this as backups
are not necessary when writing to different filenames. Example:
.. code-block:: shell-session
$ 2to3 -n -W --add-suffix=3 example.py
Will cause a converted file named ``example.py3`` to be written.
.. versionadded:: 3.2.3
The :option:`!--add-suffix` option was added.
To translate an entire project from one directory tree to another use:
.. code-block:: shell-session
$ 2to3 --output-dir=python3-version/mycode -W -n python2-version/mycode
.. _2to3-fixers:
Fixers
------
Each step of transforming code is encapsulated in a fixer. The command ``2to3
-l`` lists them. As :ref:`documented above <2to3-using>`, each can be turned on
and off individually. They are described here in more detail.
.. 2to3fixer:: apply
Removes usage of :func:`apply`. For example ``apply(function, *args,
**kwargs)`` is converted to ``function(*args, **kwargs)``.
.. 2to3fixer:: asserts
Replaces deprecated :mod:`unittest` method names with the correct ones.
================================ ==========================================
From To
================================ ==========================================
``failUnlessEqual(a, b)`` :meth:`assertEqual(a, b)
<unittest.TestCase.assertEqual>`
``assertEquals(a, b)`` :meth:`assertEqual(a, b)
<unittest.TestCase.assertEqual>`
``failIfEqual(a, b)`` :meth:`assertNotEqual(a, b)
<unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual>`
``assertNotEquals(a, b)`` :meth:`assertNotEqual(a, b)
<unittest.TestCase.assertNotEqual>`
``failUnless(a)`` :meth:`assertTrue(a)
<unittest.TestCase.assertTrue>`
``assert_(a)`` :meth:`assertTrue(a)
<unittest.TestCase.assertTrue>`
``failIf(a)`` :meth:`assertFalse(a)
<unittest.TestCase.assertFalse>`
``failUnlessRaises(exc, cal)`` :meth:`assertRaises(exc, cal)
<unittest.TestCase.assertRaises>`
``failUnlessAlmostEqual(a, b)`` :meth:`assertAlmostEqual(a, b)
<unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual>`
``assertAlmostEquals(a, b)`` :meth:`assertAlmostEqual(a, b)
<unittest.TestCase.assertAlmostEqual>`
``failIfAlmostEqual(a, b)`` :meth:`assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b)
<unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual>`
``assertNotAlmostEquals(a, b)`` :meth:`assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b)
<unittest.TestCase.assertNotAlmostEqual>`
================================ ==========================================
.. 2to3fixer:: basestring
Converts :class:`basestring` to :class:`str`.
.. 2to3fixer:: buffer
Converts :class:`buffer` to :class:`memoryview`. This fixer is optional
because the :class:`memoryview` API is similar but not exactly the same as
that of :class:`buffer`.
.. 2to3fixer:: dict
Fixes dictionary iteration methods. :meth:`dict.iteritems` is converted to
:meth:`dict.items`, :meth:`dict.iterkeys` to :meth:`dict.keys`, and
:meth:`dict.itervalues` to :meth:`dict.values`. Similarly,
:meth:`dict.viewitems`, :meth:`dict.viewkeys` and :meth:`dict.viewvalues` are
converted respectively to :meth:`dict.items`, :meth:`dict.keys` and
:meth:`dict.values`. It also wraps existing usages of :meth:`dict.items`,
:meth:`dict.keys`, and :meth:`dict.values` in a call to :class:`list`.
.. 2to3fixer:: except
Converts ``except X, T`` to ``except X as T``.
.. 2to3fixer:: exec
Converts the ``exec`` statement to the :func:`exec` function.
.. 2to3fixer:: execfile
Removes usage of :func:`execfile`. The argument to :func:`execfile` is
wrapped in calls to :func:`open`, :func:`compile`, and :func:`exec`.
.. 2to3fixer:: exitfunc
Changes assignment of :attr:`sys.exitfunc` to use of the :mod:`atexit`
module.
.. 2to3fixer:: filter
Wraps :func:`filter` usage in a :class:`list` call.
.. 2to3fixer:: funcattrs
Fixes function attributes that have been renamed. For example,
``my_function.func_closure`` is converted to ``my_function.__closure__``.
.. 2to3fixer:: future
Removes ``from __future__ import new_feature`` statements.
.. 2to3fixer:: getcwdu
Renames :func:`os.getcwdu` to :func:`os.getcwd`.
.. 2to3fixer:: has_key
Changes ``dict.has_key(key)`` to ``key in dict``.
.. 2to3fixer:: idioms
This optional fixer performs several transformations that make Python code
more idiomatic. Type comparisons like ``type(x) is SomeClass`` and
``type(x) == SomeClass`` are converted to ``isinstance(x, SomeClass)``.
``while 1`` becomes ``while True``. This fixer also tries to make use of
:func:`sorted` in appropriate places. For example, this block ::
L = list(some_iterable)
L.sort()
is changed to ::
L = sorted(some_iterable)
.. 2to3fixer:: import
Detects sibling imports and converts them to relative imports.
.. 2to3fixer:: imports
Handles module renames in the standard library.
.. 2to3fixer:: imports2
Handles other modules renames in the standard library. It is separate from
the :2to3fixer:`imports` fixer only because of technical limitations.
.. 2to3fixer:: input
Converts ``input(prompt)`` to ``eval(input(prompt))``.
.. 2to3fixer:: intern
Converts :func:`intern` to :func:`sys.intern`.
.. 2to3fixer:: isinstance
Fixes duplicate types in the second argument of :func:`isinstance`. For
example, ``isinstance(x, (int, int))`` is converted to ``isinstance(x,
int)`` and ``isinstance(x, (int, float, int))`` is converted to
``isinstance(x, (int, float))``.
.. 2to3fixer:: itertools_imports
Removes imports of :func:`itertools.ifilter`, :func:`itertools.izip`, and
:func:`itertools.imap`. Imports of :func:`itertools.ifilterfalse` are also
changed to :func:`itertools.filterfalse`.
.. 2to3fixer:: itertools
Changes usage of :func:`itertools.ifilter`, :func:`itertools.izip`, and
:func:`itertools.imap` to their built-in equivalents.
:func:`itertools.ifilterfalse` is changed to :func:`itertools.filterfalse`.
.. 2to3fixer:: long
Renames :class:`long` to :class:`int`.
.. 2to3fixer:: map
Wraps :func:`map` in a :class:`list` call. It also changes ``map(None, x)``
to ``list(x)``. Using ``from future_builtins import map`` disables this
fixer.
.. 2to3fixer:: metaclass
Converts the old metaclass syntax (``__metaclass__ = Meta`` in the class
body) to the new (``class X(metaclass=Meta)``).
.. 2to3fixer:: methodattrs
Fixes old method attribute names. For example, ``meth.im_func`` is converted
to ``meth.__func__``.
.. 2to3fixer:: ne
Converts the old not-equal syntax, ``<>``, to ``!=``.
.. 2to3fixer:: next
Converts the use of iterator's :meth:`~iterator.next` methods to the
:func:`next` function. It also renames :meth:`next` methods to
:meth:`~iterator.__next__`.
.. 2to3fixer:: nonzero
Renames definitions of methods called :meth:`__nonzero__`
to :meth:`~object.__bool__`.
.. 2to3fixer:: numliterals
Converts octal literals into the new syntax.
.. 2to3fixer:: operator
Converts calls to various functions in the :mod:`operator` module to other,
but equivalent, function calls. When needed, the appropriate ``import``
statements are added, e.g. ``import collections.abc``. The following mapping
are made:
================================== =============================================
From To
================================== =============================================
``operator.isCallable(obj)`` ``callable(obj)``
``operator.sequenceIncludes(obj)`` ``operator.contains(obj)``
``operator.isSequenceType(obj)`` ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Sequence)``
``operator.isMappingType(obj)`` ``isinstance(obj, collections.abc.Mapping)``
``operator.isNumberType(obj)`` ``isinstance(obj, numbers.Number)``
``operator.repeat(obj, n)`` ``operator.mul(obj, n)``
``operator.irepeat(obj, n)`` ``operator.imul(obj, n)``
================================== =============================================
.. 2to3fixer:: paren
Add extra parenthesis where they are required in list comprehensions. For
example, ``[x for x in 1, 2]`` becomes ``[x for x in (1, 2)]``.
.. 2to3fixer:: print
Converts the ``print`` statement to the :func:`print` function.
.. 2to3fixer:: raise
Converts ``raise E, V`` to ``raise E(V)``, and ``raise E, V, T`` to ``raise
E(V).with_traceback(T)``. If ``E`` is a tuple, the translation will be
incorrect because substituting tuples for exceptions has been removed in 3.0.
.. 2to3fixer:: raw_input
Converts :func:`raw_input` to :func:`input`.
.. 2to3fixer:: reduce
Handles the move of :func:`reduce` to :func:`functools.reduce`.
.. 2to3fixer:: reload
Converts :func:`reload` to :func:`importlib.reload`.
.. 2to3fixer:: renames
Changes :data:`sys.maxint` to :data:`sys.maxsize`.
.. 2to3fixer:: repr
Replaces backtick repr with the :func:`repr` function.
.. 2to3fixer:: set_literal
Replaces use of the :class:`set` constructor with set literals. This fixer
is optional.
.. 2to3fixer:: standarderror
Renames :exc:`StandardError` to :exc:`Exception`.
.. 2to3fixer:: sys_exc
Changes the deprecated :data:`sys.exc_value`, :data:`sys.exc_type`,
:data:`sys.exc_traceback` to use :func:`sys.exc_info`.
.. 2to3fixer:: throw
Fixes the API change in generator's :meth:`throw` method.
.. 2to3fixer:: tuple_params
Removes implicit tuple parameter unpacking. This fixer inserts temporary
variables.
.. 2to3fixer:: types
Fixes code broken from the removal of some members in the :mod:`types`
module.
.. 2to3fixer:: unicode
Renames :class:`unicode` to :class:`str`.
.. 2to3fixer:: urllib
Handles the rename of :mod:`urllib` and :mod:`urllib2` to the :mod:`urllib`
package.
.. 2to3fixer:: ws_comma
Removes excess whitespace from comma separated items. This fixer is
optional.
.. 2to3fixer:: xrange
Renames :func:`xrange` to :func:`range` and wraps existing :func:`range`
calls with :class:`list`.
.. 2to3fixer:: xreadlines
Changes ``for x in file.xreadlines()`` to ``for x in file``.
.. 2to3fixer:: zip
Wraps :func:`zip` usage in a :class:`list` call. This is disabled when
``from future_builtins import zip`` appears.
:mod:`lib2to3` --- 2to3's library
---------------------------------
.. module:: lib2to3
:synopsis: The 2to3 library
.. moduleauthor:: Guido van Rossum
.. moduleauthor:: Collin Winter
.. moduleauthor:: Benjamin Peterson <benjamin@python.org>
**Source code:** :source:`Lib/lib2to3/`
--------------
.. deprecated-removed:: 3.11 3.13
Python 3.9 switched to a PEG parser (see :pep:`617`) while lib2to3 is
using a less flexible LL(1) parser. Python 3.10 includes new language
syntax that is not parsable by lib2to3's LL(1) parser (see :pep:`634`).
The ``lib2to3`` module was marked pending for deprecation in Python 3.9
(raising :exc:`PendingDeprecationWarning` on import) and fully deprecated
in Python 3.11 (raising :exc:`DeprecationWarning`).
It will be removed from the standard library in Python 3.13.
Consider third-party alternatives such as `LibCST`_ or `parso`_.
.. note::
The :mod:`lib2to3` API should be considered unstable and may change
drastically in the future.
.. _LibCST: https://libcst.readthedocs.io/
.. _parso: https://parso.readthedocs.io/
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